One Flew over the Cuckoos Nest Response to Literature Essay Example for Free

One Flew over the Cuckoos Nest Response to Literature Essay Society is a judgmental and rejecting place. It only allows uniform individuals to be in this society which discards anyone’s individuality and pride. In the novel, One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest, by Ken Kesey, Nurse Ratched alienates the patients’ individualities which only allows them to never progress in their mental health. The society rejects the people who are not normal. In this case, the people are the ones with mental disorders. Kesey’s anti-establishment point of view against society portrays that the government misuses power to manipulate society which leads to the suppression of individuality through the literary devices analogy, metaphor, and symbolism. Ken Kesey conveys his theme by vividly explaining the â€Å"pecking party†. As one of the treatments, Nurse Ratched holds group therapy for the patients. During the group therapy session, McMurphy notices that the Nurse ignites all the conflict at first so he explains, â€Å"The flock gets sight of a spot of blood on some chicken and they all go to peckin’ at it† (Kesey 57). McMurphy is trying to explain the abusiveness of Nurse Ratched’s power. This analogy supports Kesey’s message of how society rejects and leads to the suppression of individuals. Kesey uses the chickens to represent the patients and the â€Å"first peck† would represent Nurse Ratched because she manipulates an individual which causes uneasiness to the patient which will never be the cure for one who is mental to get better. After McMurphy goes on about the pecking party, he says one more thing to Harding about the pecking party, â€Å"You want to know who pecks that first peck? † (58). McMurphy’s rhetorical question signifies his opinion even more. This allows not only Harding, but the rest of the patients to see how Nurse Ratched is just another person and how they should not let her take complete control over them. Kesey furthers his analogy after the pecking party image because it reveals and justifies who really does â€Å"peck that first peck†. This relates to the theme because Nurse Ratched represents the government while the patients represent society; concluding that the government continuously pecks at the individuals who feel that they are not a part of society. Overall, the pecking party is an analogy of how society suppresses one’s individuality because to be an individual one must â€Å"get better† like the patients attempt to do; but all they are doing are taking steps back due to Nurse Ratched. In One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest, Kesey demonstrates his use of metaphors through machinery comparisons to portray the theme of suppression of an individual. When Bromden characterizes Nurse Ratched he says, â€Å"So she really lets herself go and her painted smile twists, stretches to an open snarl, and she blows up bigger and bigger, big as a tractor, so big I can smell the machinery inside the way you smell a motor pulling too big a load. † (5). Bromden sees Nurse Ratched as machinery and not as a human being. This supports the fact that the ward is like a factory, just waiting to make patients into â€Å"products†. Kesey uses metaphor to compare Nurse Ratched to machinery because this describes her persona perfectly. Like a machine, Nurse Ratched is very smooth and calm about things at first but like every machine there are flaws. When Nurse Ratched meets her flaws, that is when things begin to go haywire like a machine. It can either breakdown or malfunction but it is always repairable. When Bromden has the dream about Blastic, he thinks â€Å"†¦I was looking to see – just a shower of rust and ashes, and now and again a piece of wire or glass† (88). The significance of Bromden’s dream is that it represents how the ward is inhumane because â€Å"a shower of rust and ashes† fell out of Blastic’s body instead of human organs. Kesey exemplifies metaphor through Bromden’s dream by explaining how society’s standards of being â€Å"accepted† can transform one to be inhumane and to lose their individuality. Overall, these comparisons relate to the theme having the machines represent a form of government, standing in the way, or suppressing, the individual, or society. This can support the main theme that society abuses their power to manipulate and suppress the individuality of others. Fog is used by Kesey to demonstrate them and to symbolize the aloneness and individuality of a patient. Bromden describes the effects of fog when he thinks, â€Å"I don’t have to end up at that door if I stay still when the fog comes over me and just keep quiet† (132). This explains how much control Nurse Ratched had over the patients. It demonstrates how something like fog takes away their individuality be they â€Å"just keep quiet†. The fog symbolizes a safe zone and aloneness for the patients because Nurse Ratched had so much authority over the patients that it was like a crib holding them while she was out. Kesey’s theme is supported in this because society takes away individuality as well as fog does. One characteristic they both share is the way they manipulate and abuse their power. Bromden also thinks about fog when he said, â€Å"You had a choice: you could either strain and look at things that appeared in front of you in the fog, painful as it might be, or you could relax and lose yourself† (131). Bromden describes how the patients were almost forced to be in the fog because â€Å"you could relax and lose yourself† and that the time that is all the patients really want. The fog also symbolizes a scapegoat for the patients so they don’t have to face all the challenges ahead because â€Å"you had a choice†. A simple break from everything, especially Nurse Ratched. This furthers Kesey’s message of how the fog is another form of control from Nurse Ratched, in which she abuses her power by manipulating her patients so they cannot get better. Ken Kesey uses analogy, metaphor, and symbolism to demonstrate how society uses their power to manipulate others which leads to a suppressed individual. He uses examples from the ward to compare the real outside world with a mental asylum. This world and society focus too much on how to fit in and it has become more of a moral thing to fit in than to be one’s self. Kesey blames it on the establishment that people are suppressed of their individuality, but is that really true? It has become a custom rather than a rule and that needs to change; and it starts from being a leader and an individual rather than a follower. The real story of individuals is not within the establishment, but it is within a person. To express that is to depending on the person and that is the problem in our society, no one likes to be that person to step up and be the first to go. But if someone were to do it, our society would change instantly.

A review of Bioactivation and Tissue Toxicity

A review of Bioactivation and Tissue Toxicity Kong Wei En (BP0711031415) Raymond Koh Chee How (BP0711031287) Jennie Lee Sheah Lin (BP0711031372) Prashanthini A/P Janardanan (BP0711031156) Hong Wei Siong (BP0711031194) Shalini A/P Shanmugavelu (BP0711031145) Introduction Xenobiotics are foreign chemicals in the body [1]. The human body has adapted processes collectively termed as biotransformation to excrete these xenobiotics [1,2]. Biotransformation generally occurs sequentially in two phases [1,2]. Phase I reactions add new functional groups to the parent compound while phase II reactions conjugate these new functional groups with polar groups [1,2]. The end-result of biotransformation is decreased lipid solubility, thus increasing renal excretion [1,2]. The liver is the chief site for biotransformation, [1,2]. Enzymes such as cytochrome P450 and peroxidase enzymes are responsible for biotransformation [3,4]. Occasionally, bioactivation occurs, in which the inert parent compound is modified into toxic metabolites [1,3,4]. The toxic metabolites are either electrophiles or free radicals, which interact with body tissues, subsequently causing toxicity [3,5]. Electrophiles Electrophiles are species deficient in electron pair generated through Phase 1 metabolism by CYP450 [5]. They are short-lived (with the possible exception of some acyl glucuronides) and not usually detectable in circulation [5]. Electrophiles can be generated from carbon, nitrogen or sulphur containing compounds [4]. The most frequently metabolised structural alerts are aromatic systems with electron-donating substituents and some five-membered heterocyclic [6]. Electrophiles cause toxicity through the formation of irreversible covalent bond to nucleophilic tissue components which includes macromolecules (proteins, nucleic acids and lipids) or low molecular weight cellular constituents [4]. Covalent binding generates potent and long lasting toxic effects because the covalently modified enzyme/receptor is permanently inactivated [4]. The covalent binding to DNA leads to mutation, tissue necrosis, carcinogenicity and tumour formation [4]. Mutations arise when the electrophiles escape the repair mechanisms of the cell, may be fixed and passed to the progeny [4]. If the electrophiles bind to protein, they will disturb the physiological homeostasis, leading to cell death [7]. Examples of electrophiles include epoxide, hydroxylamines and aldehydes [4,5]. Free radicals Free radicals (species containing an odd number of electrons) may be cations, anions or neutral radicals [8]. Free radicals are generally formed via NADPH CYP450 reductase or other flavin containing reductases [8]. They provide toxicity by peroxidation of cellular components. An important class of free radicals is organic free radicals such as hydrogen peroxide and superoxide anion [8]. The potential toxicity of free radicals is far greater than electrophiles [8]. Free radicals are able to produce chemical modifications and damage to proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleotides [9]. If the reactive free radical is formed close to DNA then it may produce a change in the structure resulting in a mutation or cytotoxicity [9]. Protein and non-protein thiol groups are readily oxidized by many free radicals and may lead to profound changes in enzyme activity [9]. Another major pathway of metabolic disturbances is depending on covalent binding with cell components such as protein, lipid and nucleic acid to from a stable covalently bound adduct that may grossly distort structure and function [9]. Reactive free radical may also damage cells through membrane damage [9]. Examples of free radicals include hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radical and peroxynitrite [10]. Examples of drugs undergoing bioactivation and causing subsequent tissue toxicity Table 1: Several drugs, with their corresponding toxic metabolic pathways and the subsequent adverse effects. Drug Metabolic pathway Adverse effects Chloramphenicol Chloramphenicol is first oxidised by CYP monooxygenase into its dichloromethyl moiety [11]. Hydrochloric acid is then eliminated to produce a reactive metabolite that interacts with the Æ -amino acid of a lysine residue in CYP monooxygenase [11]. The enzymatic reaction is eventually retards over time, leading to adverse effects [11]. Apalstic anemia [12] Bone marrow toxicity [12] Acetaminophen The reactive metabolite is called N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine (NAPQI) [11]. Metabolic pathway 1: Acetaminophen undergoes N-oxidation to become N-hydroxyacetaminophen, which then undergoes dehydration to form NAPQI [11]. This pathway is probably uncommon as N-hydroxyacetaminophen is not a chief intermediate in the oxidation of acetaminophen [11]. Metabolic pathway 2: NAPQI undergoes a Michael-type addition with either glutathione or protein thiol groups [11]. Hepatotoxicity [11,12]. Tienilic acid Tienilic acid is oxidised by CYP2C9 to either thiophene sulfoxide or thiophene epoxide [11]. These electrophilic reactive intermediates alkylate CYP2C9, permanently binding themselves to the enzyme [11]. The enzyme is subsequently inactivated [11]. The body then produces anti-LKM2 autoantibodies against the native CYP2C9 enzyme and the modified CYP2C9 enzyme [11]. Immunoallergic hepatitis [11] Halothane Matabolic pathway 1: In hypoxic states, halothane undergoes reduction to produce the 1-chloro-2,2,2-trifluoroethyl free radical [11]. This free radical performs a radical attack, leading to the necrosis of hepatocytes [11]. The radical may also react with the Fe2+ in the CYP enzyme to form an iron ÏÆ'-alkyl complex [11]. This complex then causes the necrosis of the hepatocytes [11]. Metabolic pathway 2: Halothane undergoes oxidation to produce trifluoroacetyl chloride [11]. Liver proteins are then trifluoroacetylated on their Æ -NH2-lysyl residue [11]. This newly formed neoantigen evokes an immune response towards the liver [11]. Severe hepatitis [11] Valproic acid Valproic acid is metabolised by CYP2C9 into 2-propyl-4-pentenoic acid, also termed as Δ4VPA [11]. This metabolite can then undergo two pathways [11]. Metabolic pathway 1: CYP enzymes metabolize Δ4VPA into a reactive metabolite, which then proceeds to alkylate the prosthetic heme of the CYP enzymes [11]. Hence, the enzymes are inhibited [11]. Metabolic pathway 2: The Δ4VPA metabolite undergoes ÃŽ ²-oxidation to generate the Coenzyme A ester of 3-oxo-2-propyl-4-pentenoic acid [11]. This new metabolite alkylates the terminal enzyme of ÃŽ ²-oxidation (3-ketoacyl-CoA thiolase) by a nucleophilic attack at the olefinic terminus [11]. Hepatotoxicity [11] Troglitazone Metabolic pathway 1: The thiazolidinedione ring undergoes oxidative cleavage to produce a reactive sulfoxide intermediate, which spontaneously opens its ring [11]. Metabolic pathway 2: The phenolic hydroxyl group of troglitazone undergoes a one-electron oxidation catalysed by CYP3A to produce an unstable hemiacetal, which spontaneously opens to form a quinine metabolite [11]. The quinine metabolite then undergoes the metabolic pathway described earlier (metabolic pathway 1) [11]. Metabolic pathway 3: The unstable hemiacetal produced in metabolic pathway 2 may undego hydrogen abstraction, resulting in the production of an o-quinone methide derivative [11]. Hepatic failure Death (due to hepatic failure) [11]. Part 2: Applications of Bioactivation and Tissue Toxicity in Abacavir and Lidocaine Abacavir Abacavir (ABC) is an anti-HIV drug classified as a nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) [13]. ABC possesses a significant role in the treatment of HIV patients [13]. First, ABC is subjected to phase I oxidation to produce ABC-carboxylate, followed by phase II glucuronidation to generate the inactive glucuronide metabolite [13]. Both the glucuronide and carboxylate metabolites are chiefly eliminated in the urine [13]. ABC undergoes bioactivation to form reactive aldehyde metabolites [13]. ABC metabolism to ABC-carboxylate involves a two-step oxidation via an aldehyde intermediate (unconjugated ABC-aldehyde) which rapidly tautomerizes to the more stable conjugated ABC-aldehyde [13]. This reactive metabolite is capable of reacting with proteins to produce covalent adducts, which results in the occurrence of adverse effects [13]. The most prevalent acute ABC-induced adverse effects are the potentially life-threatening hypersensitivity reactions (HSR) that occur within the first 6 weeks of treatment [13]. ABC also possesses the potential to induce cardiotoxicity, which raised further concerns about the prolonged administration of this drug [13]. Lidocaine Lidocaine has been extensively used in the treatment of ventricular arrhythmias [14]. It is also usually administered intravenously to treat and prevent cardiac arrhythmias after acute myocardial infarction [14]. Its chemical structure is an amide with an aromatic group [15]. Lidocaine is chiefly metabolized by the microsomal enzyme system in the liver [15]. The major biotransformation pathways are oxidation and hydroxylation [14]. Lidocaine undergoes oxidative N-deethylation to form the toxic mono-ethylglycinexylidide, which is then hydrolysed to 2,6-xylidine [14,15]. Finally, 2,6-xylidine is modified to 4-hydroxy-2,6-xylidine, which is excreted in urine [14]. Lidocaine also undergoes hydroxylation of the aromatic nitrogen to form N-hydroxylidocaine and the toxic N-hydroxymonoethylglycinexylidide [14]. The active and toxic metabolites known as mono-ethylglycinexylidide and N-hydroxymonoethylglycinexylidide primarily cause neural and cardiac toxicity [14,15]. Early signs of CNS intoxication include shivering, muscular twitching and tremors of the facial muscles [15]. As toxicity is low, it is safely and extensively used to treat arrhythmias [15]. Conclusion To eliminate xenobiotics from our body, processes collectively termed as biotransformation occurs in two phases. However, toxic metabolites (electrophiles or free radicals) may be produced in processes called bioactivation, which interact with body tissues and cause tissue toxicity. The bioactivation and subsequent adverse effects of abacavir and lidocaine has been discussed in detail. References [1] Rang H, Dale M, Ritter J. Rang Dales pharmacology. 7th Edition. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 2011. [2] Dekant W. The role of biotransformation and bioactivation in toxicity. Springer. 2009; 57-86. [3] Walsh J, Miwa G. Bioactivation of drugs: risk and drug design. Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology. 2011; 51: 145-67. [4] Brahmankar DM, Jaiswal SB. Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics A Treatise. 2nd Edition. Vallabh Publications Prakashan; 2012. [5] Boyer T, Manns M, Sanyal A, Zakim D. Zakim and Boyers hepatology. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders/Elsevier; 2012. [6] Walsh J, Miwa G. Bioactivation of drugs: risk and drug design. Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology. 2011; 51: 145-67. [7] Ioannides C, Lewis DFV. Cytochromes P450 in the Bioactivation of Chemicals,Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry. 2004; 4:1767-88. [8] Leon Shargel , Andrew Yu, Suzanna Wu-Pong. Applied Biopharmaceutics Pharmacokinetics. 6th ed. USA :McGraw Hill ; 2012. [9] Trevor F. Slater. Free-radical mechanisms in tissue injury. Biochem J. 1984 Aug 15;222(1):1-15. [10] V. Lobo, A. Patil, A. Phatak, N. Chandra. Free radicals and functional foods : impact on human health. Pharmacogn Rev. 2010 Dec; 4(8): 118-26 [11] Wermuth CG, editor. The Practice of Medicinal Chemistry. 3rd edition. UK and USA: Elsevier Ltd.; 2008. [12] Nassar AF, Hollenberg PF, Scatina J, editors. Drug Metabolism Handbook: Concepts and Applications. New Jersey and Canada: John Wiley Sons, Inc.; 2009. [13] Griloa NM, Charneirab C, Pereiraa SA, et al. Bioactivation to an aldehyde metabolite-Possible role in the onset of toxicity induced by the anti-HIV drug abacavir. Toxicology Letters. 2014; 224: 416-23. [14] Collinsworth KA, Kalman SM, Harrison DC. The Clinical Pharmacology of Lidocaine as an Antiarrhythmic Drug. Circulation. 1974;50:1217-30. [15] Johansen Ø. Comparison of Articaine and Lidocaine used as Dental Local Anesthetics. Faculty of Dentistry, University of Oslo; 2004. 25 p.

Prion Diseases Essay -- Medical Prions Disease TSE

Prion Diseases Abstract Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) are neurodegenerative diseases that are thought to be caused by the misfolding of prion proteins. Prions are able to replicate in the absence of nucleic acids. TSEs include: scrapie, bovine spongiform encephalopathy, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, kuru, Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker disease, and Fatal Familial Insomnia. They can affect many different animals, including humans. Currently, there are no ways to diagnose, treat, or cure TSEs, as much more research is needed before these diseases are completely understood. 1. Overview Prions are a type of protein found naturally in the brain and other regions of the central nervous system. The diseases associated with prions are collectively known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs). â€Å"Transmissible† refers to their potentially infectious nature, and â€Å"spongiform encephalopathies† indicates the microscopic sponge-like deterioration of the brain caused by the progression of the disorders. While these fatal neurodegenerative diseases exhibit different clinical symptoms, have different incubation periods, and even target different areas of the brain, they do share a number of characteristics. They occur in both animals and humans. During a silent incubation period, there are no detectable signs of the disease, although depending on the specific disease, the length of the incubation period can â€Å"vary from a few weeks to up to 40 [years]† (Baker & Ridley, 1996, 1). Due to their unique method of propagation (which will be addressed later), TSEs present a seeming paradox in that â€Å"inherited cases give rise to a disease that is transmissible but acquired cases do not produce heritable diseases† (Baker & Rid... ...(Soto, 2006, 105). 15. Conclusion On a closing note, prion research is significant not only for possible breakthroughs in understanding TSEs, but because of the vast implications the very concept of prions holds for the entire field of biology. As the first substance discovered that can replicate in the absence of nucleic acids, prions defy one of the most central biological doctrines. The similarities between TSEs and dementia disorders like Alzheimer’s disease and â€Å"findings of proteins with a prion-like behavior in yeast and other fungi† (Soto, 2006, 143) suggest that prions and proteins like them may be much more common than ever expected (Soto, 2006, 154). 10 Bibliography Baker, Harry F., & Ridley, Rosalind M. (1996). Prion Diseases. Totowa, New Jersey: Humana Press. Soto, Claudio. (2006). Prions: The New Biology of Proteins. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.

The Rights Issues of Digital Preservation in the Digital Era :: Preservation Access Library Science

The Rights Issues of Digital Preservation in the Digital Era Not long ago, Anthony Grafton, the distinguished Princeton historian, published a history of the footnote. An intellectual tool that is â€Å"the humanist’s rough equivalent of the scientist’s report on data,† the footnote offers â€Å"the empirical support for stories told and arguments presented.† No doubt we all remember our own experiences of awe and wonder when we learned how to interpret a footnote and so began to understand the mechanics of scholarly reference. However, according to Grafton, â€Å"no one has described the way that footnotes educate better than Harry Belafonte, who recently told the story of his early reading of W. E. B. DuBois.† As a young West Indian sailor, Belafonte learned to read critically when he figured out how the footnote opened a world of learning. â€Å"I discovered,† Belafonte said, â€Å"that at the end of some sentences there was a number and if you looked at the foot of the page the reference was to what it was all about—what source DuBois gleaned his information from.† However, Belafonte did not find the task of learning from references to be easy at first and was stymied by the methods that DuBois used to cite his references. Trying to track them down, he says that he went to a library in Chicago with a long list of books. â€Å"The librarian said, ‘that’s too many, young man. You’re going to have to cut it down.’ I said, ‘I can make it very easy. Just give me everything you got by Ibid.’ She said, ‘There’s no such writer.’ I called her a racist. I said, ‘Are you trying to keep me in darkness?â€⠄¢ And I walked out of there angry.†. Of course, footnotes are not the only or, in a variety of research and educational contexts, even the best method of reference. Moreover, as the Belafonte story indicates, there can be many obstacles in tracing down a reference path. However, as Grafton concludes in his study, the footnote is a critical part of the scholarly apparatus because it is such a clear and efficient mechanism to link one piece of scholarship with what its author has identified as the key reference points for the work. It serves as a guarantee, Grafton says, â€Å"that statements about the past derive from identifiable sources. And that is the only ground we have to trust [those statements]† (Grafton 1997: vii, 233-235).

Thomas Jefferson Essay -- essays research papers

Introduction Thomas Jefferson spent most of his career in public office and made his greatest contributions to his country in the field of politics. He loved liberty in every form, and he worked for freedom of speech, press, religion, and other civil liberties. Jefferson was the 3rd president of the United States and best remembered as a great president and as the author of the Declaration of Independence. Jefferson's interests and talents covered an amazing range. He became one of the leading American architects of his time and designed the Virginia Capital, the University of Virginia, and his own home, Monticello. He greatly appreciated art and music and tried to encourage their advancement in the United States. He also won lasting fame as a diplomat, a political thinker, and a founder of the Democratic Party. Early Life Jefferson was born on April 13, 1743, at Shadwell, the family farm in Goochland County, Virginia. He was the third child in the family and grew up with six sisters and one brother. Two other brothers died in infancy. His father, Peter Jefferson, had served as surveyor, sheriff, colonel of militia, and member of House of Burgesses. Thomas' mother, Jane Randolph Jefferson, came from one of the oldest families in Virginia. 	Thomas developed the normal interests of a country boy, such as hunting, fishing, horseback riding, and canoeing. He also learned to play the violin and to love music. When Jefferson was fourteen, his father died. Since he was the oldest son he became the head of the family. He inherited more than 2,500 acres of land and 20 slaves. His guardian, John Hairvie managed the estate until Jefferson was twenty-one. 	At the age of nine, Jefferson began studies under a tutor. He learned Latin, Greek, and French. In 1760, at the age of sixteen, he entered the college St. William and Mary at Williamsburg. There, young Jefferson met two men, William Small and Judge George Wythe, who would have a great influence on him. Small was a professor of mathematics at the college. Small introduced his "...eager young disciple...(Worldbook)" to Wythe, one of the most experienced lawyers in the province. Through Small and Wythe, Jefferson became friendly with Governor Francis Fauquier. These four spent countless evenings at the governor's mansion, talking and playing chamber music. 	Jefferson spent two yea... ... Jefferson prepared a written vocabulary of Indian language. He arranged for the French sculptor Jean Houdon to come to America to make a statue of George Washington. Jefferson also posed for Houdon and for the famous American portrait painter Gilbert Stuart. He enjoyed playing the violin in chamber music concerts. Jefferson also founded the University of Virginia, "Of which he was very proud (Internet)". He died in 1826, and left his family deep in debt. The Executor's Sale in the winter of 1827 put up for sale 130 of his slaves. They sold all of his possession's in three years. Conclusion 	Thomas Jefferson was a great and powerful leader who led a full and successful life in America. Even as a young boy, Jefferson was an independent thinker, which led him into a career in politics. Jefferson also was a great writer and inventor. Some of his writings include the Declaration of Independence and the Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom, both which shaped the nation into what it is today. Jefferson helped set a standard for the United States as well as the rest of the world. Without him, the United States would not be the land of justice, liberty and the free.

Early Childhood Development Management Essay

Early Childhood Development (ECD) is a holistic, integrated, inclusive approach to Programming, research and policy for young children up to 6 years of age and requires a healthy, safe and nurturing environment that includes opportunities to support the emotional, social, physical, cognitive, and spiritual aspects of children within the context of their community. It welcomes their participation and empowers them as a basis for their future. (â€Å"National Economic Development and Law Center†). Today’s early childhood educators face management and strategic challenges in an increasingly turbulent environment; rapid growth demands increased managerial proficiency. In order to meet these critical challenges, agency leaders must develop entrepreneurial competencies and a firm understanding of core management theories and principles. At times, even the most successful organizations need to redefine business goals and create innovative strategies to excel at a new level. This paper will address the key issues of financial management in an ECD center. Financial management of a school entails School financial analysis and reports, finance policy and procedures, finance resources, school funding, High Yield Investment Accounts, worksheets, taxation and schools education and training funding. (Grossman and Keyes, 231). Finance resources and school funding From National Economic Development and Law Center For the market feasibility analysis for income generation, the financial administrator need to assess what works most effectively for a particular area and the families being targeted. An advertising budget is Set-aside with determination on how to get the most out. A strong market feasibility analysis for a facility development project would prove that there are enough resources. According to (name of first ECD center) there is market demand for child care at rates sufficient to generate revenues to cover not only operating expenses, but also debt service on any loans incurred to develop the facility. Financial feasibility analysis assesses key areas concern with the day care; mainly the number of other child care programs (both center and family based) that already exist in the community; The number of child care spaces already provided in the area; The vacancy rate of other programs in the area; The average cost of care got by contacting and visiting existing providers to find out about their vacancy rates and the kinds of services they offer; The length of current waiting lists that other market-area child care programs currently have; (For existing programs) the length of the business’ waiting list; Age groups that are being served (infants, toddlers, preschoolers, school-age, or a Combination) or that are NOT being served by other programs; Locations of existing child care businesses in your vicinity; The services your proposed business or expansion can provide that other child care providers are not offering, and Types of services offered by existing child care busine sses. (Name of the second center) School financial analysis and reports The administrator describes how the funds being requested will be used. These expenditures should also demonstrate that the center is a good investment, and it shows that the business is financially sound and well managed. The financial analysis section contains four components: Firstly the Summary of financial needs that briefly describes why funding is needed, the type of funding required, total amount needed, and how the funds will be used. Secondly is the A well-prepared development budget showing that the costs involved have been carefully considered including both the line item costs and the known or anticipated sources of funding. Thirdly is financial projections which are financial statements used to predict the future profitability of a business. Projections should be based on realistic research and reasonable assumptions. They include cash flow projections; income (incoming money from parent fees, vouchers, state subsidies, etc. ), and expense projections (health care, tuition or anticipated). Lastly, It is necessary to include financial statements that reflect the businesses past financial activities, a statement of financial position, and a cash flow statement. Previous financial statements or projected statements. (Brealey et al, 1996) Conclusion From Children research, ECD centers ought to be warm nurturing learning environment with trained caring staff, nutritious meals, in a central location of a community having a large safe outdoor play area. These are key areas that a financial administrator should ensure maximum financial support is given as the backbone to the center. (â€Å"Early Childhood Educational Issues†). References: Grossman B, Keyes C Early Childhood Administration, Michigan: Allyn and Bacon National Economic Development and Law Center (2003) Child Care Center Financial Planning and Facilities Development Manual 22nd April 2008 Brealey, Richard A. and Myers, Stewart C, Principles of Corporate Finance, New York: McGraw-Hill, (1996). â€Å"Early Childhood Educational Issues. † National Association for the Education of the Young Children. 22nd April 2008 . (Name of first ECD center). Personal interview. 22nd April 2008. (Name of the second center). Personal interview. 22nd April 2008.

Social Security Coverage- Tanzania

SOCIAL SECURITY POLICY – GLOSSARY . ILO Minimum Standards. International Labour Organisation set an instrument which was adopted at its 35th session in June 1952, popularly known as ‘Social Security (minimum Standards) Convention No. 102. Itemised number of contingencies and benefits required in the minimum standards convention include’ Old Age, Invalidity, Survivorship, Employment Injury, maternity, medical Care, sickness, Unemployment and Death. Indexation of Benefits: It is an adjustment of pensions and other cash benefits to take account of price movements and protection against inflation to the beneficiaries.Indexes may include prevailing statutory minimum wages, yearly average earnings of the contributors e. t. c. Portability of Benefits: This is a system which ensures that members accrued benefits are not lost by a member changing employer, changing employment from one sector to another or by migrating from one country to another. The system ensures continu ity of benefit rights accrued. Means-tested Basis: It is the basis of provision and adjustment of social assistance benefits by the government depending on a person’s means of living.The most considered group of people for the provision of social assistance benefits by meanstesting include, elderly, sick, invalids (disabled), survivors, unemployed. Normally these groups of people fall out of contributory schemes. In other words assistance is provided to citizens according to their inability to meet basic needs for survival, or defending themselves against natural calamities. Three- Tier System: According to ILO framework, Three Tier system is an arrangement/system designed to cater for different needs of protection for different categories of people depending on their level of incomes.Tier one, which is financed by the government, caters for those who are not able to purchase social security services e. g. sick, disabled, elderly e. t. c. Tier two caters for those who can con tribute and is compulsory and supervised by the government. Tier three caters for those who can afford to supplement their Tier two security by purchasing commercial insurance benefits. Tier three is voluntary and privately managed. Three-Tier system is designed to reduce the government expenditure on social assistance/security programs through expansion of coverage of Tier Two and Three. . 3. 4. 5. iii 6. Actuarial Valuation: It is the process which involves assessing the current level of funding of the scheme by comparing scheme assets with liabilities accrued to the date of valuation and to determine the level of contributions that need to be paid in future to achieve the level of funding necessary to pay out the benefits promised. Actuarial reviews are conducted in intermediate periods to ensure that the fund is sustainable and this is reflected in the projections are of a long time frame e. . 25 years. 7. Social Insurance Principles: Is a social security administration where th e resources are pooled together for meeting various contingencies, every one is included regardless of the level or risk exposure and the motive is social protection as opposed to profit maximization. Defined Contribution v/s Defined Benefits: Defined contribution is a situation where benefits from a social security is not known, but depends on the contributions to be made and interests rates obtainable.Defined benefits is a situation where benefits to be obtained are known well in advance regardless of the contributions to be made, provided that the members meets prescribed minimum conditions. Defined contributions are associated with provident fund schemes, while defined benefits are associated with social insurance schemes. 8. iv FOREWORD The socio-economic and political changes, which are taking place in Tanzania, have prompted the formulation of the National Social Security Policy in order to address such changes for the benefit of its citizens and to ensure that sectoral progr ammes and activities are well coordinated.The formulation of the National Social Security Policy came at a time when Social Security Providers are reorganizing their activities to respond to the market demand as related to free market economy. Since independence to-date, some few institutions have been enjoying monopolistic status of providing social security services in the country. However under this policy social security sector will be liberalized. The National Social Security policy is a product of a series of consultations with stakeholders which started in year 2001. The policy was adopted by the government early in year 2003.The aim of this policy is to realize the goals and objectives set out in the vision 2025 by extending social security services to the majority of the Tanzanians. The structure of the Policy document provides background information of social security, status and challenges of the sector in Tanzania, and the rationale for its formulation. There are also ch apters that provide policy issues and statements, institutional frame- work and responsibilities during its implementation. With great pleasure I would like to welcome the social security policy for the development of our country. Hon. Prof. J. A.Kapuya (MP) Minister for Labour, Youth Development and Sports v CHAPTER 1 1. 0 1. 1 INTRODUCTION Background Every human being is vulnerable to risks and uncertainties with respect to income as a means of life sustenance. To contain these risks, everyone needs some form of social security guaranteed by the family, community and the society as a whole. Such socioeconomic risks and uncertainties in human life form the basis for the need of social security. Social security is rooted in the need for solidarity and risk pooling by the society given that no individual can guarantee his or her own security.Formal social security system in Africa and other developing countries is a product of colonialism. In Tanzania during the colonial era, social security coverage was extended to the few people who were in the colonial employment. Most of the people were excluded from any type of public social security scheme. The majority of the Tanzanian people depended upon the traditional social security system for their protection, which is still the case to date, though effects of urbanization and difficult economic environment have weakened the same.After independence, the Government of Tanzania introduced a series of policies and measures to reverse the situation that prevailed during the colonial era. The measures included access to free education and healthcare, provision of social welfare services to marginalized groups such as the elderly, people with disabilities and children in difficult circumstances, as well as establishment of statutory social security schemes.However, tax financed social services have proved to be unsustainable as evidenced by introduction of cost sharing in sectors such as education and health. 1 1. 2 The Concept of Social Security Social security means any kind of collective measures or activities designed to ensure that members of society meet their basic needs and are protected from the contingencies to enable them maintain a standard of living consistent with social norms.The social security concept has been changing with time from the traditional ways of security to modern ones. As societies became more industrialized as a result of industrial revolution in the 19th century and more people became dependent upon wage employment, it was no longer possible to rely upon the traditional system of social security. The negative impact of industrialization and urbanization attracted the attention of policy makers to formalize social security system that addressed the emerged social issues.Social security is defined in its broadest meaning by the International Labour Organization (ILO) as: â€Å"The protection measures which society provides for its members, through a series of public m easures against economic and social distress that would otherwise be caused by the stoppages or substantial reduction of earnings resulting from sickness, maternity, employment injury, unemployment, disability, old age, death, the provision of medical care subsidies for families with children. The ILO framework of social security is based on a three-tier structure, which seeks to utilize various funding sources for provision of better protection to the country’s population. This structure also seeks to address needs of different groups in the 2 society with respect to income and degree of vulnerability. The structure consists of the following: a) Tier One – Social Assistance Schemes This constitutes provision of services such as primary health; primary education, water, food security and other services on a means tested basis.These services are usually financed by the government and Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs. b) Tier Two – Mandatory Schemes These are usually compulsory and contributory schemes financed by both employer and employee during the working life for terminal and short-term benefits. c) Tier Three – Voluntary or Supplementary Schemes The schemes under this tier include personal savings, co-operative and credit societies, occupational pensions schemes and private schemes; managed by employers, professional bodies, communitybased organizations and other private sector actors. CHAPTER II 2. O SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL SECURITY SYSTEM IN TANZANIA 2. 1 Objectives of the Social Security Services Social security in Tanzania covers a wider variety of public and private measures meant to provide benefits in the event of the individuals’ earning power permanently ceasing, being interrupted, never developing, being unable to avoid poverty, or being exercised only at an acceptable social costs. The major domains of social security are: poverty prevention, poverty alleviation, social compensation and income distri bution.Many issues relating to social security are sensitive, as they touch on the material interests of organized workers and the unorganized poor as well as insurance industry and employer organizations. The social security system in Tanzania has the following key elements:†¢ Social assistance schemes which are non-contributory and income-tested, and provided by the state to groups such as people with disabilities, elderly people and unsupported parents and children who are unable to provide for their own minimum needs.In Tanzania social assistance also covers social relief, which is a short term measure to tide people over a particular individual or community crisis; †¢ Mandatory schemes, where people contribute through the employers to pension or provident funds, employers also contribute to these funds; 4 †¢ Private savings, where people voluntarily save for retirement, working capital and insure themselves against events such as disability and loss of income and meet other social needs. Despite the existence of this framework, service delivery has not reached the majority of Tanzanians due to inadequate financing and fragmented institutional arrangements.The estimated total population of Tanzania is 33. 5 million1. Out of this, 70 per cent are in the rural areas, while the rest are in urban areas. The total labour force of Tanzania is estimated at 16 million, where 5. 4% of the total labour force or 2. 7% of the total population is covered by the mandatory formal social security system. 93 per cent of the capable workforce is engaged in the informal sector in both rural and urban areas; out of that 80 per cent is in engaged in the agrarian economy2. 2. Informal Social Security System Tanzania, like many other countries in the developing world has had strong informal and traditional social security systems built on family and/or community support.In times of contingencies such as famine, diseases, and old age; individuals have depended on f amily, clan members and members of the community for assistance in the form of cash or in kind. While it is recognized that over time, traditional social security system has tended to decay and change forms in response to the forces of urbanization and industrialization, there is evidence that in Tanzania family and 2 National Bureau of Statistics, 2001 National Labourforce Survey, 1999 5 community social support system have remained as means of social security within different social groups. Overtime, socio-economic reforms have slowly resulted into disintegration of the family-based social security protection leading to the formation of self-help groupings such as UPATU, UMASIDA and VIBINDO. 2. 3 Formal Social Security System Formal social security is a regulated mechanism of protecting citizens against social contingencies.This system has existed in Tanzania well before independence; whereby various policy statements have been made and Acts passed in regard to the protection of t he population against contingencies like injury, loss of employment and old age. These include the Master and Native Ordinance Cap 78 as amended by Cap. 371, Provident Fund (Government Employees) Ordinance Cap 51, Provident Fund (Local Authorities) Ordinance Cap. 53 and the Workmen’s Compensation Ordinance Cap 262. After independence new legislations were enacted and others amended.These include the Severance Allowance Act No. 57 of 1962; the National Provident Fund Act No. 36 of 1964 amended by Act. No. 2 of 1975 which was later repealed and replaced by the National Social Security Fund Act No. 28 of 1997; the Parastatal Pensions Act No. 14 of 1978, the Public Service Retirement Benefits Act of 1999, the National Health Insurance Fund Act No. 8 of 1999 and Local Authorities Provident Fund Act. No. 6 of 2000. 6 Currently, there are five major formal institutions that provide social security protection in Tanzania.These are the National Social Security Fund (NSSF) offering soc ial security coverage to employees of private sector and non-pensionable parastatal and government employees, the Public Service Pension Fund (PSPF) providing social security protection to employees of central Government under pensionable terms, Parastatal Pension Fund (PPF) offering social security coverage to employees of the both private and parastatal organizations, the Local Authorities Provident Fund (LAPF) offering social security coverage to employees of the Local Government and the National Health Insurance Fund (NHIF) offering health insurance coverage to pensionable employees of central government.The formal social security total coverage in Tanzania is about 871,000 members distributed as 363,000 for NSSF, 193,000 for PSPF, 180,000 for NHIF, 90,000 for PPF and 45,000 for LAPF. This represents about 85% of the persons employed in the formal employment sector. 2. 4 The Impact of Social Security System in Tanzania Efforts by the government to provide social security protect ion in the country have brought about significant development. However, due to the absence of an elaborate social security policy to guide effective functioning of the industry, there are some structural, operational and policy weaknesses inherent in the social security system. a) i) Achievements Investment of Social Security Funds 7Social security institutions in Tanzania have been investing in portfolios such as commercial loans, real estate, government securities, Loanable funds, bank deposits and equities; all of which have contributed to social and macro-economic development of the country. ii) Awareness on Social Security Matters There has been an increase in the level of public awareness on the social security system in respect of benefits offered, coverage, investments and general operations of the sector. iii) Organized Self-help Groups Informal social security scheme in the form of self-help groups has been more organized than before. (b) Shortcomings in the Current Social Security System The existing social security system in Tanzania is characterised by a number of shortcomings, which need to be addressed by this policy.Among these shortcomings are: – i) Limited Coverage Persons covered by the social security schemes are those who are employed in the formal sector estimated at 1. 0 million. This is only about 5. 4% of the whole labour force of over 16 million Tanzanians. This means the remaining 15 million labour force, engaged in informal sector and comparatively more vulnerable are not covered by the formal social security protection. ii) Inadequacy of Benefits Paid (Number and Meaningfulness) 8 The number of benefits offered by most of the existing schemes fall below the ILO Minimum Standards in terms of number, quality and indexation to the current levels of earnings. ii) Fragmentation and Lack of Co-ordination The social security sector lacks co-ordination at national level as each Fund reports to a different Ministry with differing ope rational rules and procedures. As a result, contribution rates, benefit structures, qualifying conditions as well as plans and priorities differ form one institution to another. iv) Lack of Mechanism for Portability of Benefit Rights There is no established mechanism that can allow benefit rights of a member to be transferred from one scheme to another. This results in employees losing some of their benefit rights when they move from one sector to another. v) Social Security Benefits In some of the Tanzania’s social security schemes, members’ benefits are not rights but privileges.Normally, members loose some of their benefits if they leave employment before attainment of their pensionable ages. nature of termination. vi) Conflicts in the Existing Legislations Establishing legislations of the current social security institutions have provisions that conflict in terms of operations. In other circumstances, members’ benefit rights are determined by the employers d epending on the 9 vii) Non-contributory Social Security Benefits Currently, there is a segment of salaried workers who are getting social security benefits fully financed through tax revenues; this is a strain to the Government budget. viii) Liberalization There has been a monopoly in the operation of social security institutions in the country. ix)Investment of Social Security Funds There has been inadequate guidance on investment of social security fund at national level 2. 5 i) Challenges In The Social Security System Weakening of Informal Social Protection System Socio-economic developments taking place in Tanzania have resulted into a slow but steady disintegration of the kinship or family-based social support systems on which the majority of Tanzanians have depended for protection against contingencies. Economic hardships have made it difficult for individuals, families and/or kin members to provide assistance to each other in time of crisis and need. The high rate of urbanisa tion has also taken its toll on traditional social protection systems.There has been increasing fragmentation with families becoming more dispersed thereby eroding the capacity of extended families to function as social safety nets. ii) Limited Growth of the Formal Employment 10 Public sector reforms have resulted into retrenchment of workers, freezing employment in the public sector and privatisation of public enterprises. These have led to increased unemployment, which in turn has forced more people to resort to employment in the urban informal sector where earnings are often inadequate and/or uncertain. There is however a limited growth in employment in the private sector. iii) Reduced Access to Social Services Despite the deliberate measures by the government to improve provision of ocial services to the public, considerable part of the population has either limited or no access to services. In some instances, cost sharing in the provision of social services has reduced the capa city of the people to access the services. iv) Low levels of incomeIncomes for the majority of the people in Tanzania are generally inadequate to meet their basic requirements and save for future use. v) Declaration of Low Insurable Earnings Some employers provide remunerations composed of basic salaries and allowances, while deductions for social security are based on basic salaries only, leading to lower benefits from social security institutions upon retirement. 2. Rationale For A Social Security Policy The existing social security system has many shortcomings that include low coverage of the Tanzanian Society, fragmentation of 11 legislation, lack of regulatory framework, lack of a mechanism for portability of benefits and inadequacy of benefits provided. Therefore, the need for a well-articulated national social security policy is more eminent now than ever. In view of the foregoing, there is a need for having a comprehensive national social security policy that shall address t he needs of employed people in the formal sector, self employed population in the informal sector, the elderly, people with disabilities and children in need of special protection.Therefore the social security policy is expected to: Widen the scope and coverage of social security services to all the citizens; Harmonize social security schemes in the country so as to eliminate fragmentation and rationalize contribution rates and benefit structures; Reduce poverty through improved quality and quantity of benefits offered; Institute a mechanism for good governance and sustainability of social security institutions through establishment of a regulatory body; Establish a social security structure that is consistent with the ILO standards but with due regard to the socio-economic situation in the country; and Ensure more transparency and involvement of social partners in the decision making with respect to social security institutions 12 CHAPTER THREE 3. POLICY ISSUES AND STATEMENTS The g eneral objective of the policy is to ensure that every citizen is protected against economic and social distress resulting from substantial loss in income due to various contingencies. Underlying the above–mentioned general objective, this policy shall therefore address the following specific issues: 3. 1 Policy Issue: The Structure of Social Security Sector Different social groups face different contingencies, hence calling for varied types of protection. Provision of comprehensive social security services should follow a structure that recognises different levels of needs, utilises different funding sources and reflects roles of various stakeholders.Policy Statement: Provision of social security services in the country shall be structured as follows: a) Social Assistance Programmes The Government shall enhance the capacity to attend to the social assistance programmes that constitute services such as primary health; primary education, water, food security and social welfare services to vulnerable groups such as people with disabilities, the elderly and children in difficult circumstances on a means tested basis. Moreover, the government shall create an enabling environment for other institutions such as Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs), charitable organisations, families and mutual assistance groups to supplement the government’s effort in the provision of such services. 13 b)Mandatory Schemes Mandatory social security institutions that shall operate under the social insurance principles in accordance with minimum acceptable standards and benchmarks. c) Supplementary Schemes Supplementary schemes shall be established to cater for different social services like health, pensions and other types of insurance over and above those provided by mandatory and social assistance programmes. These schemes shall be run by employers, bodies private and companies, professional community-based organisations (CBOs). 3. 2 Policy Issue: Coverage The existin g mandatory social security schemes currently cover only 5. 4 % of the labour force estimated at 16. 0 million.The larger part of the labour force engaged in the informal sector that includes smallholder agriculture, small-scale mining, fishing, and petty businesses are inadequately covered by self-help initiatives. Moreover, accessibility to the social welfare services by the disadvantaged groups is limited; hence the majority of the people are not covered by the formal social security schemes. Policy Statements: a) Social Welfare Service shall be improved and extended to enhance accessibility to disadvantaged groups including people with disabilities, the elderly and children in difficult circumstances. b) A legal framework shall provide for all employees in the formal sector and devise means of extending coverage to the informal sector such as agricultural, 14 ining, fishing and small businesses. c) There shall be an act to support the formation of mutual assistance initiatives b y the NGOs, CBOs and other groups operating at community level. d) Employers, financial institutions, professional associations, insurance companies, social security institutions and other organisations shall be enabled to establish supplementary schemes to provide social security benefits over and above those provided by mandatory and social assistance programmes. 3. 3 Policy Issue: Social Security as a Right According to Article 22 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 10th December 1948; social protection is a rights issue.Likewise, Article 11(1) of the Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania stipulates that:â€Å"The state authority shall make appropriate provisions for the realisation of a person’s right to work, to self education and social welfare at times of old age, sickness or disability and in other cases of incapacity†¦.. †3 In view of such provision there is still inadequate coverage of social security services to the Tanzanian Socie ty. Policy Statement Efforts shall be made to enhance awareness and 3 United Republic of Tanzania (1998) â€Å"The Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania of 1977† 15 sensitisation of the society regarding the important and provision of social security services as a right.3. Policy Issue: Inadequacy of Benefits offered The number and quality of benefits offered by most of the existing social security funds are not adequate to meet the basic needs of beneficiaries; in terms of the number of benefits, magnitude and indexation to the current levels of earnings. Policy Statement: Social security schemes shall have a standard minimum number of benefits offered and indexed to the current levels of earnings of contributors. 3. 5 Policy Issue: Portability of Social Security Benefits Benefit rights are not portable when a member moves from one scheme to another due to differing legislations, operational rules and procedures. As a result members loose some of their benefit righ ts just by moving from one scheme to another. Policy Statement There shall be regulated mechanisms established to enable portability of benefit rights when a member moves from one scheme to another. 3. 6Policy Issue: Lack of Co-ordination 16 The current social security institutions are placed under different Ministries with different rules and procedures, as a result there is a conflict in the administration of social security matters. Policy Statement: The social security sector shall be coordinated by the Ministry responsible for social security matters. 3. 7 Policy Issue: Reciprocal Agreements for Transfer of Benefits Labour mobility across nations has become a common phenomenon due to globalisation and foreign investment, there by require people work and live in different countries; and hence find themselves contributing to various social security institutions.Lack of a mechanism for transfer of benefit rights across nations may result into some members loosing their rights or b eing unable to qualify for better benefits. Policy Statement: Legal mechanisms shall be developed to provide for reciprocal agreements with other countries for transfer of social security benefits across nations. 3. 8 Policy Issue: Partial Withdrawal of Benefits Social security schemes do not provide for pre-mature withdrawals of benefits by members before attainment of the pensionable age. However, due to unstable employment environment, low level of income of most of the workers and little awareness on social security matters, members have a tendency of demanding total 17 withdrawal of benefits upon termination of employment before the attainment of pensionable age.Policy Statement: Legal mechanisms shall be developed to allow for withdrawal of part of the accumulated benefits; while the balance shall remain for long-term benefits on premature termination of their employment. 3. 9 Policy Issue: Financing of Social Security Services The Government has the responsibility of providin g social security services to its citizens. However, due to limited resources the Government still provides limited services for salaried employees and individuals who can afford to contribute for the services. Policy Statements: (a) Services under Social Assistance Programs shall be offered on a means-tested basis and financed by the general tax revenue and other grants. b) Mechanisms shall be established to ensure that all salaried employees and individuals, who can afford to contribute to the mandatory schemes, do so to ensure enhancement of benefits.3. 10 Policy Issue: Guaranteeing of Mandatory Schemes The Government has the responsibility to guarantee members’ benefits in the event the established mandatory social security 18 schemes become insolvent. So far there is no concrete commitment by the Government to instil contributors confidence in their membership Policy Statement: (a) (b) The Government shall continue to guarantee members’ benefits in the established mandatory schemes. The Government shall ensure that Social Security Schemes are managed efficiently. 3. 1 Policy Issue: Taxation on Contributions, Investment Income and Benefits Contributions and income accrued from investment by social security institutions are being taxed thus weakening the capacity of the schemes to offer quality benefit to members. Policy Statement: The government shall continue to review tax policies to ensure contributions, benefits and income from investments to enable mandatory schemes offer meaningful benefits to members. 3. 12 Policy Issue: Investment of Social Security Funds Investment of social security funds is an inseparable function of social security institutions. Sustainability of the schemes and improvement of benefits depend on investment income.Social security funds have often been directed to areas where there is no stimulation of economic growth. There are no clear-cut guidelines directing investments of social security funds at the national l evel. 19 Policy Statement: Guide lines will be developed based on principles of safety yield and liquidity. 3. 13 Policy Issue: Good Governance Good governance is the key to smooth functioning and efficiency in all social security schemes, as they are entrusted to manage funds on behalf of the contributors. There has been poor governance in social security services. Policy Statement There shall be guidelines to ensure that all social security schemes are transparent and accountable to the members and the public at large.3. 4 Policy Issue: Legal Framework and Minimum Standards There is fragmentation of social security system in the country with respect to different legislations and design of the schemes. These schemes also lack minimum standards to guide their operations. Policy Statement: There shall be an act to govern and standardize operations of the social security sector. The law shall also provide for the establishment of a regulatory body that shall ensure smooth and efficien t operations of the sector. 20 3. 15 Policy Issue: Liberalization of the Social Security Sector The current trend in the country is to liberalize various sectors in the economy. However, the current social sector is based on organization/institution monopoly in its operation.Policy Statements: Social security institutions shall operate in a regulated liberalized market as follows:While the existing Social mandatory Security social Services security under institutions shall operate and compete among themselves supplementary schemes shall be fully liberalized. 21 CHAPTER IV 4. 0 ROLES OF STAKEHOLDERS The different stakeholders shall have the following roles to play in the social security sector:4. 1 The Government †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ 4. 2 Coverage of the social assistance programmes Put an enabling environment for smooth operations of the social security To institute regulatory and legal framework Supervision of the sector. Guarantor of mandatory schemesSocial Secu rity Institutions †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Offering quality benefits and services Good governance of the schemes Involvement of Stakeholders Widen coverage Awareness creation and sensitisation 4. 3 Employers †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Registration of employees Timely and accurate remittance of contributions Awareness creation and sensitisation Adherence to safety and occupational health rules 4. 4 Workers’ Unions †¢ †¢ †¢ Representation of workers’ interests in the social security Awareness creation and sensitisation Support the social security industry. 22 sector 4. 5 NGOs/CBOs †¢ Complement efforts by the Government in the provision of social †¢ assistance programmes and establishment of supplementary schemes Awareness creation to the public 4. 6 Communities †¢ †¢ Responsiveness to the needs of the vulnerable persons Maintain self-help traditions 23